Sandia National Laboratories conducts extensive research on hydrogen fuel cells, which are established power sources for various applications, including forklifts, mobile lighting, emergency backup systems, and vehicles. Our focus includes studying the feasibility, optimization, and safety of hydrogen fuel cells specifically in maritime environments, with an emphasis on powering both docked vessels and operational ships.
Power for Ports
Seaport operations require significant power to support onshore equipment and vessels at berth. Sandia evaluates the feasibility of using fuel cells for this purpose, including to supply power for docked container ships, tugs, and refrigerated containers.
Our research has led to the construction and deployment of the first containerized fuel cell system, the MarFC, used for powering refrigerated containers at Honolulu Harbor and providing onshore power for a Scripps Institution of Oceanography research vessel. These deployments have demonstrated the operational viability and requirements of fuel cells in these settings.
Providing fuel cell shore power for the research vessel Robert Gordon Sproul. Photo courtesy of Bruce Appelgate, Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
Vessels
Sandia assesses the feasibility of using hydrogen fuel cells to provide propulsion power for maritime vessels of different types, including high-speed ferries and oceanographic research vessels. These studies have led to the design and construction of the Sea Change, the world’s first commercial 100% hydrogen fuel cell ferry, and the design of the Scripps CCRV vessel. These projects introduced hydrogen propulsion technology to the United States Coast Guard and maritime classification societies that help governing bodies develop regulations for new maritime fuels.
An illustrated diagram of hydrogen fuel cells and storage on a maritime vessel.
Report: MV Sea Change: Fuel Cell, Emissions, and Hydrogen Fueling Performance (2025)
Report: Exploring Liquid Hydrogen Tank Technology for Zero-Emission Fuel Cell Vessels (2024)
Final Report: Zero/V Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Coastal Research Vessel (2018)
Final Report: Optimization of Zero-Emission Hydrogen Fuel Cell Ferry Designs (2018)
SF-BREEZE Final Report (2016)
Safety
Sandia uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models to study what happens when hydrogen is released from different storage systems, such as high-pressure and liquid hydrogen tanks, as well as within fuel cell rooms. The research looks at how factors like wind can affect how hydrogen spreads during outdoor releases on ships and how proper ventilation can help manage indoor releases in fuel cell rooms.
Such studies provide a scientific basis to inform safety regulations and standards. Past studies were carried out with input from the United States Coast Guard and classification societies aiming to improve hydrogen safety standards in maritime settings.
CFD modeling of a buoyant hydrogen leak, showing the flammable hydrogen and air mixture (in white) surrounded by recirculating, entrained air (magenta arrows).
More Resources
“MV Sea Change: The first commercial 100% hydrogen fuel cell passenger ferry in the world,” Van Sickle, P. Ralli, J.W. Pratt, L.E. Klebanoff, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 105, 2025, Pages 389-404,
ISSN 0360-3199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.01.040.
“Exploring variations in the weight, size and shape of liquid hydrogen tanks for zero-emission fuel-cell vessels,” T.K. Drube, J.M. Gerlach, T.S. Leach, B. Vogel, L.E. Klebanoff, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 80, 2024, Pages 1441-1465, ISSN 0360-3199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.06.420.
“Project Nautilus: Introducing a Hydrogen Fuel Cell System as a Retrofit for a Hybrid Electric Vessel,” N. Pal, B. Boudreau, N. Monroe, E. Vaughn, N. Zaag, R. Sookhoo, K. Harris, B. Vogel, L.E. Klebanoff, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 1457-1476, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.11.309.
“Hydrogen Gas Dispersion Studies for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vessels I: Vent Mast Releases,” , M.L. Blaylock and L.E. Klebanoff, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47 (2022) 21506 – 21516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.04.262
“Hydrogen Gas Dispersion Studies for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vessels II: Fuel Cell Room Releases and the Influence of Ventilation,” , K.M. Gitushi, M.L. Blaylock and L.E. Klebanoff, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47 (2022) 21492 – 21505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.04.263
Comparative study of a hybrid research vessel utilizing batteries or hydrogen fuel cells, Leonard E. Klebanoff, Sean A.M. Caughlan, Robert T. Madsen, Cody J. Conard, Timothy S. Leach, T. Bruce Appelgate, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,Volume 46, Issue 76, 2021, Pages 38051-38072, ISSN 0360-3199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.09.047
Feasibility of the Zero-V: A zero-emissions hydrogen fuel-cell coastal research vessel, R.T. Madsen, L.E. Klebanoff, S.A.M. Caughlan, J.W. Pratt, T.S. Leach, T.B. Appelgate, S.Z. Kelety, H.-C. Wintervoll, G.P. Haugom, A.T.Y. Teo, S. Ghosh, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 45, Issue 46, 2020, Pages 25328-25343, ISSN 0360-3199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.06.019.
Comparison of the greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emissions from the SF-BREEZE high-speed fuel-cell ferry with a diesel ferry, L.E. Klebanoff, J.W. Pratt, C.M. Leffers, K.T. Sonerholm, T. Escher, J. Burgard, S. Ghosh, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Volume 54, 2017, Pages 250-268, ISSN 1361-9209, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.05.012.
Comparison of the safety-related physical and combustion properties of liquid hydrogen and liquid natural gas in the context of the SF-BREEZE high-speed fuel-cell ferry, L.E. Klebanoff, J.W. Pratt, C.B. LaFleur, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 42, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 757-774, ISSN 0360-3199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.11.024.
Contact
Lennie Klebanoff
lekleba@sandia.gov